TIMELINE OF THE BIBLE: AN OVERVIEW OF SALVATION HISTORY

Introduction:  How To Use This Timeline

            The idea behind this Timeline is to make it easier to grasp the narrative, or story, of  the Bible as it was written -- from the first book, Genesis, all the way to the last book, Revelation.  It is hoped that by submitting all of the books of the Bible to various groupings in outline form it will be possible to make easier the difficult tasks of approaching the great depth of the Bible and coming to grips with its seemingly overwhelming details. Taking up the Bible as if it were a pleasant novel, relaxing to read and simple to understand is a huge misconception.  It takes great scholars literally years to bring the entirety of Scripture under the control of the human mind.  So it is hoped that this Timeline will make reading the Bible itself simpler and more subject to understanding. Here then, is the explanation for how to use the Timeline.

Old Testament Narratives of the Hebrew Past

            The Bible is composed of different types of literature (or genres), and although many of the genres present writings about a past time, no literature in the Old Testament claims or presents itself to be a work of history. Ancient Hebrew writers of the earliest books of the Old Testament, which we will discuss repeatedly as a category herein (namely, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua and Judges), used standards to judge their source materials (mostly oral recollections of the people's past) that were vastly different from the standards that modern historians would later use. Noted Scripture scholars cannot agree on when ancient Hebrew authors started writing the Book of Genesis.  However, the common agreement is that this written record of the people's past began about 1100 - 1000 B.C.

            This written record of the earliest books of the Bible, without being modern scientific history, because of its lack of direct evidence by the authors, nonetheless presents a solid meaning to what is written, together with a critical attitude toward their writings by the authors.  These two factors place their "narrative," (or dated story) of the the earliest books of the Old Testament in the same intellectual and scholarly category, even though much earlier than, the first truly scientific history written in the 5th Century B.C. by the Greek scholar, Herodotus, nicknamed "the Father of History."  If  Herodotus was the Father of History, we can go beyond him and say that, because Herodotus' sense of "meaning" was simply impersonal, blind fate, that the "Father of Meaning" in history was instead the Jewish authors of the the earliest books of the Old Testament. This sense of meaning, embedded in the basic theme of those early books is the Jewish authors' basing the Hebrew past on the people's human interaction with Yahweh, their personal God. This essential theme of the Pentateuch shows how God was revealed in a number of central events: (1) the choice of the patriarchs, (2) the giving of a covenant, (3) the law to be obeyed, and (4) the guidance through the wilderness to a promised land.

            The narrative genres of the Old Testament present the Hebrew past from the creation of the world through the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. The timeline for this presentation of the past covers people and events dated from c.2000 B.C. in the days of Abraham up to and through 500 B.C. to 400 B.C., or in the time of the Jews' return from captivity in Babylon (see the Timeline, period number 8, below, for this "captivity"). As far as the earliest books of the Bible are concerned, while there is little direct evidence of what is written as we noted above, there is, however, a huge amount of circumstantial evidence, such as names, places, business contracts, marriage contracts and migratory patterns. Further, modern archaeology has generally confirmed the Bible's early efforts to present written history. As archaeology continues its digging into the past, we find that the more  archaeologists discover of the earliest biblical era, the more we see that a tremendous amount of historicity appears in the text of the earliest books of the Bible. The findings of the 19th - 21st century archaeologists provide the true scientific foundation of a good part of the narrative genres of the Old Testament. 

            The underlying sense of meaning in the Old Testament writers' presentation of the Hebrews' past is to tell us the readers the crucial things that happened in the past that we need to know in order to discover and know God.  The Pentateuch advances religious and theological lessons but warns us not to treat the five books like a textbook full of academic truths. In other words, the Old Testament authors did write about Israel's past in their narrative.  But the writing of history was secondary to their other purposes. In addition to the narrative portions, there are books displaying non-narrative genres of the Bible -- laws, songs, prophetic oracles, proverbs and wisdom literature.  These attest to the history of Israel only indirectly. The non-narrative texts served ritual, educational, moral and other functions in ancient Israelite society. The non-narrative authors, while mostly avoiding tales of the past,  nonetheless believed that they and their readers were essential players in the narrative of Israelite history. Therefore, the authors of non-narrative portions of the Old Testament guided the Israelites in living their personal history as God's chosen people in accordance with God's plan.  Such authors gave the people this guidance without making it sound historical as did the narrative in the the earliest books of the Old Testament.

New Testament Approaches to the Past

            The word "narrative," as used above, does not apply to the New Testament authors, as they wrote about nothing before the birth of Jesus -- which took place, incongruously, probably about 4 A.D. The New Testament authors focused on what they might have called "the eternal present," rather than  about anything that was intended as history, or even information of an earlier past epoch that existed before the earthly life of the Word made flesh in Jesus of Nazareth. (The one exception to this statement are the two genealogies of Jesus, i.e., Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3: 23-38, which dwell intensely on past important figures in the Old Testament, including as far back as Genesis.) The New Testament is very much "non-narrative" when compared to the narrative portions of the Old Testament, as we have talked about them above when considering the Pentateuch.

            New Testament authors believed that the past had a religious plan and purpose, but for them that plan and purpose was completely embodied in the person of Jesus, who was the Messiah already on earth. The gospel writers could not see any purpose in writing about Jesus' life as a feature of world history -- as was characteristic of  the narrative of the people and events in Old Testament history. St. Paul wrote more historically than the gospel writers. However, he too, believed that all history had come to fruition with the life of Jesus, both during his earthly ministry, and as continuing through to the Parousia, or end-time coming again of Jesus as the glorious Lord of all history. For New Testament writers, since Jesus was the Messiah already come to earth, risen from the dead and ascended into heaven, and since he was coming again to oversee the end of history, what purpose could be served by the New Testament authors' writing a history of the rest of earthly events?

Getting Into the Timeline

            The Timeline below lists twelve time periods within which the various, respective books of the Bible are discussed under a thematic heading. Each of the twelve headings will summarize both the dates within which the books under the heading were written and the subject matters about which the respective books under the heading were written.  Below the twelve time periods and the names, dates and subject matters of the various books, will be listed the name of the great power then dominating world history. Along with the name of the great power will be a brief statement of some point of secular history taking place during the period of the great power.

            The chronology under each of the twelve time periods will move this Timeline of the Bible along, using narrative historical dates and events as discussed above. Non-narrative books, or what shall instead be designated below as "supplemental books" (to avoid the negative "non" description) will appear at the end of the remarks covering the narrative history of the respective twelve periods. The dates in which these supplemental books were written may be implicitly understood as having been written within the same time period covered for the narrative books of a given period.  For example, we will consider the history of the return of the Jews to Jerusalem from their exile in Babylon and Persia during the 400's B.C. under the time period headed "Return." And since the Book of Job, while not at all related to the historical narrative of the period in general or to the Return in particular, was written during the same 400's B.C., we will include the "supplemental Book of Job" under the heading designated "Return," simply to situate it in the era of its composition.

Summary of the Set-Up of the Timeline

(1) The Twelve Time Periods and Their Dates.

(2) The Biblical Books Written During Each Time Period.

(3) The Subject Matter of Such Books.

(4) Any Supplemental (non-historical) Books Written During Each Time Period.

(5) The Leading World Power During the Time Period.

(6) A Short Point of Secular History Within the Time Period of the World Power.

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Period Number 1

I. "EARLY WORLD" (CREATION -- 2000 BC)

II. GENESIS CHAPTERS 1 - 11

III. GEN 1-3 ADAM & EVE; CREATION; GEN - 4 CAIN, ABEL, SETH,  FALL, CURSE AND PROMISE; GEN 9 NOAH FLOOD; GEN 10-11 JAPHETH, SHEM:  PEOPLE SCATTERED AT BABEL

IV. SUPPLEMENTAL BOOKS: NONE

V. WORLD POWER: EGYPT.

VI.. SECULAR HISTORY: GREAT PYRAMIDS BUILT, c. 2685 B.C.; STONEHENGE CONSTRUCTED IN ENGLAND, c. 2000 B.C.

Period Number 2

I. "PATRIARCHS" (2000 B.C. -- 1700 B.C.)

II. GENESIS CHAPTERS 12 - 50.

III. GEN-12 GOD CALLS ABRAM OUT OF UR; GEN-14 MELCHIZEDEK BLESSES ABRAHAM; GEN -19 SODOM AND GOMORRAH; GEN-22 BINDING OF ISAAC; GEN-15, 17, 22 COVENANTS WITH ABRAHAM; GEN. 22 - PROMISE OF WORLDWIDE BLESSING (NEW COVENANT TO BE REALIZED UNDER AGE OF MESSIAH); GEN - 27 JACOB STEALS ISAAC'S PATERNAL BLESSING AWAY FROM ESAU; GEN 32 - JACOB WRESTLES WITH GOD, IS RENAMED "ISRAEL;" GEN - 35 TWELVE SONS OF JACOB (TWELVE TRIBES OF ISRAEL); GEN - 37 JOSEPH SOLD INTO SLAVERY; GEN - 46 JACOB'S FAMILY MOVES TO EGYPT

IV. SUPPLEMENTAL BOOK: NONE

V. WORLD POWER: BABYLON

VI. SECULAR HISTORY:  CODE OF KING HAMMURABI OF BABYLON, 1760 B.C.  

Period Number 3              

I. "EGYPT & EXODUS" (1700 B.C.-- 1280 B.C.)

II. EXODUS (ITS ENTIRETY: CHAPTERS 1 -- 40)

III. EX 1:1 - 15:21 THE ISRAELITES ARE SLAVES OF PHARAOH; EX 3:14 THE BURNING BUSH; EX 7-11 EGYPT'S TEN PLAGUES; EX 12 THE FIRST PASSOVER; EX 15:4 THE PARTING OF THE RED SEA; EX 16 MANNA FROM HEAVEN; EX 24 GOD'S COVENANT WITH MOSES ON MT. SINAI (AND THE TEN COMMANDMENTS); EX 32 THE GOLDEN CALF; EX 29 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE LEVITICAL PRIESTHOOD; EX 25 - 39 CONSTRUCTION OF THE TABERNACLE; EX 37 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARK OF THE COVENANT

IV. SUPPLEMENTAL BOOKS: LEVITICUS PRE- AND POST- ISRAEL'S ESCAPE FROM EGYPT; PRIESTS AND LAWS

V. WORLD POWER: EGYPT

VI. SECULAR HISTORY: FIRST URBAN CIVILIZATION IN CHINA, c. 1600 B.C.; GREEK LANGUAGE FIRST WRITTEN, c. 1450 B.C.

Period Number 4 

I. "DESERT WANDERINGS" (1280 -1240 B.C.)

II. NUMBERS AND DEUTERONOMY

III. NM 1 - 10 CENSUS AND PREPARATION TO LEAVE SINAI; NM 10 - 25 DEPARTURE FROM SINAI, WANDERING FORTY YEARS IN THE WILDERNESS; NM 25 - 36 PREPARATION TO ENTER THE PROMISED LAND;  DT 1, 4, 29 THREE DISCOURSES BY MOSES; DT 12 - 28 THE DEUTERONOMIC CODE; DT 34 THE DEATH OF MOSES

IV. SUPPLEMENTAL BOOK: NONE

V. WORLD POWER: EGYPT

VI. SECULAR HISTORY:  BUILDING PROJECTS OF PHARAOHS SETI I AND RAMESES II.

Period Number 5

I. "CONQUEST & JUDGES" (1240 B.C. - 1050 B.C.)

II. JOSHUA AND JUDGES

III. JOS 1- 12 CONQUEST OF CANAAN; JOS 13 - 21 DIVISION OF THE LAND AMONG THE TWELVE TRIBES; JOS 22 - 24 RETURN OF THE TRANSJORDAN TRIBES AND JOSHUA'S FAREWELL AND DEATH; JGS 1 - 3 SITUATION IN CANAAN FOLLOWING THE ISRAELITE CONQUEST; JGS 3 - 16 STORIES OF THE JUDGES AND NAMES OF THE TWELVE JUDGES: OTHNIEL, EHUD, SHAMGAR, DEBORAH, GIDEON, TOLA, JAIR, JEPHTHAH, IBZAN, ELON, ABDON, SAMSON; JGS 17 - 21 STORIES OF THE TRIBES OF BENJAMIN AND DAN 

IV. SUPPLEMENTAL BOOK: RUTH

V. WORLD POWER: EGYPT

VI. SECULAR HISTORY: EGYPT AT WAR AGAINST HITTITES, LIBYANS AND GREEKS;  IT BEGINS TO LOSE ITS POWER AS IT GIVES UP ITS FORMER CONTROL OVER PALESTINE (1234 - 1165 B.C.)

Period Number 6

I. "ROYAL KINGDOM" (1050 B.C. - 930 B.C.)

II.  1 & 2 SAMUEL, 1 KINGS 1 - 11

III.  1 SAMUEL 1 - 7 THE LAST JUDGES, ELI AND SAMUEL; 1 SAMUEL 8 - 12 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MONARCHY; 1 SAMUEL 13 - 2 SAMUEL 2  SAUL AND DAVID; 2 SAMUEL 2 - 20 THE REIGN OF DAVID; 1 KGS 1 - 11 THE REIGN OF SOLOMON

IV. SUPPLEMENTAL BOOKS: PSALMS, 1 & 2 CHRONICLES, PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES; SONG OF SONGS

V. WORLD POWER: EGYPT

VI. SECULAR HISTORY: EGYPT LOSES POWER AND PRESTIGE TO THE MESOPOTAMIAN EMPIRES, ASSYRIA, BABYLONIA, SUMER

Period Number 7

I. "DIVIDED KINGDOM" (930 B.C. - 722 B.C.)

II. 1 KINGS 12-22, 2 KINGS

III. 1 KGS. 12 JUDAH & ISRAEL TO THE TIME OF AHAB; 1 KGS. 17, 1- 22.STORIES OF THE PROPHETS; 2 KGS 1 - 17 THE KINGDOMS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH; 2 KGS 18 -25 THE KINGDOMS DIVIDE WITH ISRAEL HAVING 10 TRIBES WITH ITS CAPITAL IN SAMARIA AND JUDAH HAVING 2 TRIBES WITH ITS CAPITAL IN JERUSALEM; THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH AFTER 721 B.C (WHEN THE NORTHERN KINGDOM OF ISRAEL WAS CONQUERED AND DEPORTED TO ASSYRIA.

IV. SUPPLEMENTAL BOOKS:  2 CHRONICLES CONT'D; HOSEA, ISAIAH, MICAH, OBADIAH, JOEL, AMOS, JONAH, TOBIT

V. WORLD POWER: ASSYRIA

VI. SECULAR HISTORY: ASSYRIA REPLACES EGYPT AS LEADING GREAT POWER, FIRST OLYMPIC GAMES, 776 B.C., FOUNDING OF ROME, 753 B.C.

Period Number 8

I. "EXILE" (722 B.C. - 539 B.C.)

II. 2 KINGS CONT'D

III. 2 KGS 2 ELIJAH & ELISHA;. 2 KGS 18, 19 HEZEKIAH, ISAIAH, 2 KGS 21 REIGN OF MANASSEH; 2 KGS KING TIGLATH-PILESER III INVADES AND CARRIES OFF NORTHERN KINGDOM TO ASSYRIA 722 B.C.; 605, 597, 587 (all three B.C.) THREE DEPORTATIONS BY BABYLON OF JUDAH; FIRST TEMPLE DESTROYED BY BABYLON 587 B.C.; 70 YEARS EXILE OF JUDAH IN "BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY"

IV. SUPPLEMENTAL BOOKS:  NAHUM; HABAKKUK; DANIEL; EZEKIEL; JUDITH; LAMENTATIONS; JEREMIAH; ZEPHANIAH; BARUCH

V. WORLD POWER: BABYLON

VI. SECULAR HISTORY: HOMER'S ILIAD AND ODYSSEY WRITTEN 722 B.C., THE BUDDHA BEGINS HIS TEACHING, 563 B.C., CONFUCIUS, 551

Period Number 9

I. "RETURN" (538 B.C. - 168 B.C.)

II. EZRA, NEHEMIAH

III. EZRA 1 -6, JUDAH'S THREE-STAGE RETURN FROM EXILE (1) 538 B.C., (2) 525 - (3) 457 B.C., 444 B.C.; THE KINGS OF PERSIA: CYRUS, 538 - 529 B.C., DARIUS I, 521 B.C. - 485 B.C., DARIUS III, 336 - 330 B.C.; EZRA 7  - 10 THE DEEDS OF EZRA; NEHEMIAH 1 - 7 THE DEEDS OF NEHEMIAH, 8 - 13; HE REBUILDS WALLS OF JERUSALEM 444 B.C; ZERUBBABEL REBUILDS TEMPLE 537 B.C.;  PROMULGATION OF THE LAW

IV. SUPPLEMENTAL BOOKS:  ZECHARIAH, HAGGAI, ESTHER, MALACHI

V. WORLD POWERS: PERSIA (CYRUS); GREECE (ALEXANDER THE GREAT)

VI. SECULAR HISTORY: PLATO, 427 B.C., DEATH OF SOCRATES, 399 B.C., ARISTOTLE, 384 B.C., ALEXANDER THE GREAT 336, SEPTUAGINT BIBLE TRANSLATION WRITTEN IN ALEXANDRIA, 283 B.C., GREAT WALL OF CHINA 214 B.C.

Period Number 10

I.  MACCABEAN REVOLT 167 B.C - END OF B.C., BEGINNING OF A.D.

II. 1 MACCABEES

III. 1 MACCABEES 1, HELLENISM IN ASIA MINOR; THE MACCABEAN REVOLT; 1 MACCABEES 3 - 9, THE LEADERSHIP OF JUDAS MACCABEUS; 1 MACCABEES 9 - 12, LEADERSHIP OF JONATHAN; 1 MACCABEES 13 - 16 SIMON HIGH PRIEST AND ETHNARCH 

IV. SUPPLEMENTAL BOOKS:  2 MACCABEES, WISDOM OF SOLOMON, SIRACH

V. WORLD POWER: ROME

VI. SECULAR HISTORY: ANTIOCHUS EPIPHANES, 163 B.C., DEAD SEA SCROLLS, 100 B.C., JULIUS CAESAR, 44 B.C., POMPEY CAPTURES JERUSALEM, 63 B.C., HEROD THE GREAT, 4 B.C., VIRGIL WRITES AENEID, 30 B.C.

Period Number 11      

I. MESSIANIC FULFILLMENT (1 - 33 A.D.

II. FOUR GOSPELS: MATTHEW, 80 A.D.; MARK, 69 A.D.; LUKE, 80 - 90 A.D.; JOHN 90 - 100

III. MATTHEW 1 -2, THE INFANCY NARRATIVE; MATTHEW 3 -7, PROCLAMATION OF THE KINGDOM; MATTHEW 8 - 11, MINISTRY AND MISION IN GALILEES; MATTHEW 11 -13, OPPOSITION FROM ISRAEL; MATTHEW 13-18, JESUS, THE KINGDOM AND THE CHURCH; MATTHEW 19 - 25, MINISTRY IN JUDEA AND JERUSALEM; MATTHEW 26 - 28, THE PASSION AND RESURRECTION.

IV. SUPPLEMENTAL BOOKS:  MARK, LUKE, JOHN

V. WORLD POWER: ROME

VI. SECULAR HISTORY: EMPERORS TIBERIUS 14 - 37 A.D.; CLAUDIUS 41 - 54 A.D.

Period Number 12   

I.   THE CHURCH ( 33 A.D. ----

II. ACTS

III. PAUL'S LETTERS: ROMANS, 1 & 2 CORINTHIANS; GALATIANS; EPHESIANS; PHILIPPIANS; COLOSSIANS; 1 & 2 THESSALONIANS; 1 & 2 TIMOTHY; TITUS; PHILEMON; THE CATHOLIC LETTERS: JAMES; 1 & 2 PETER; 1, 2  & 3 JOHN; JUDE; REVELATION; ACTS 80-90 A.D.

IV. SUPPLEMENTAL BOOK ACTS:  MAJOR DATES IN CHURCH HISTORY OF FIRST CENTURY A.D. WITNESS IN JERUSALEM: PENTECOST; STEPHEN MARTYRED; CHOOSING OF SEVEN DEACONS; WITNESS IN JUDEA & SAMARIA; SAUL'S CONVERSION (33/34 A.D.); CORNELIUS' VISION; PETER'S ARREST AND DELIVERANCE; WITNESS TO THE ENDS OF THE EARTH: PAUL'S THREE MISSIONARY JOURNEYS (45-58 A.D.); COUNCIL OF JERUSALEM (49 A.D.);  JOHN'S APOCALYPSE (BOOK OF REVELATION) 68 A.D..

V. WORLD POWER: ROME

VI. SECULAR HISTORY: DESTRUCTION BY ROME OF JERUSALEM TEMPLE (70 A.D.); NERO (54 - 68 A.D.); VESPASIAN (69 - 79 A.D.); TITUS (79 - 81 A.D.); DOMITIAN 81-96 A.D.

--Tony Gilles

Feast of Presentation: Why should our Lord should be presented to His Father?

The readings for 2 February are for the Presentation. Why does the Church celebrate the Presentation? What is the purpose that our Lord should be presented to His Father? One may, perhaps, respond, "To fulfill the Law." But for what purpose was the Law? Did God arbitrarily come up with some rules just for the sake of having something for us to obey? Or was there a purpose?

St. Athanasius, in the Catena Aurea, is recorded as saying, "For us, perhaps, these things were written; for as not to confer grace on Himself was He made man and circumcised in the flesh, but to make us Gods through grace, and that we might be circumcised, in the Spirit, so for our sake is He presented to the Lord, that we also might learn to present ourselves to the Lord." I think that makes perfect sense. Jesus became man in order that He may present man, being circumcised in the Spirit, through grace, to the Father through Himself.

Now, St. Athanasius had said, "...that we also might learn to present ourselves to the Lord." This is true. There will come the day that we will have to present ourselves to the Lord. Not only will we have to present ourselves to the Lord, we must "look" like Jesus Christ. How will we be able to do this? Although it is true that we must learn to present ourselves to the Lord, we have Hope. Jesus did not present Himself to the Father; His Mother, the Virgin Mary (with Joseph) presented Him. It was His Mother that presented Him at the temple. The Virgin Mary is also our Mother because Jesus made her our Mother at the cross. The Catholic Church, Christ's Body, is also our Mother. Mary and the Catholic Church will present us to the Lord. Not only will the Virgin Mary and the Catholic Church present us, but the Catholic Church is the Body of Christ; therefore, Christ Himself will sanctify us and present us.

The Virgin Mary really had no earthly reason for purification for she conceived not by man but by the Holy Spirit. Nevertheless, she obeyed the Law because she was human and had need to be purified by her Son, as is the Catholic Church, His Body. Although she was without sin, she still needed a Savior, as she stated in the Magnificat. It was by reason of her Son that she was without sin; hence, she was purified by Him. The same applies to the Catholic Church. Jesus was obedient to His parents, as we are to the Catholic Church--or should be and try to be.

Oh, Lord, so wonderful, magnificent, and holy, we are so sinful; nevertheless, look not upon our sins but look upon the faith of Your Church, of which we are members, and keep us. Glory be to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit; as it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be, world without end. Amen.

--T.T.

"MODELS OF THE CHURCH:" ENHANCING YOUR PARTICIPATION

Introduction: Cardinal Avery Dulles, S.J. and His Theology of the Church

There is a fifty-dollar word that is useful for identifying and finding our place in the Church. It's "ecclesiology." This article will be based on a veiled meaning of that word and its effects on all Catholics -- even those who have never heard of it. But have no fear. We will discuss the word ecclesiology itself in a somewhat concealed sense. That is, we will discuss its importance through the eyes, thoughts and writings of one of the greatest scholars of the modern Church, Cardinal Avery Robert Dulles, S.J. (1918-2008). Cardinal Dulles, in his prolific and numerous books and articles had a knack for making otherwise overly complex theological concepts like "ecclesiology" available to the average reader. He made the study of ecclesiology (without dwelling vexatiously on the word itself) both interesting and helpful to us in our lives as Catholics.

Cardinal Avery Dulles' Famous Book on the Church: Although he was an expert and brilliant Catholic theologian, Cardinal Dulles did not regard theology as an academic discipline reserved for the Church's upper echelon intellectuals. Instead, he wrote his books to help Catholics "in the pews" to enhance their relationship with their parish church or with some other participation in the global Church. This is especially true for his book that we will focus on in this article, namely, his essential, best-selling book -- which he entitled "Models of the Church." This book was his cleverly subtle discussion of ecclesiology without battering the reader with the word itself or otherwise relying too heavily on other "fifty-dollar words." He hoped that his "Models of the Church" would strengthen the faith of regular, customary, salt-of-the earth disciples of Jesus in their everyday relationship to the Church. Before we look at the Cardinal's biography and the exposition of his inconspicuous way of looking at ecclesiology in "Models of the Church," written for the benefit of traditional Catholic churchgoers, let's first discuss a few characteristics of ecclesiology within the overall theology of the Church.

Ordinarily, theology in its many subjects is seen as taught by the church. Ecclesiology is essentially the antithesis of this ordinary approach to theology among theologians within the Church. This is because eccelisiolgy as a division of theology is of or about the Church, i.e., a subject of study by ecclesiologist-theologians. Of course ecclesiologist-theologians study and teach ecclesiology within the Church, so in that sense, while ecclesiology is a specialized discipline, it's still being taught by the Church in the persons of ecclesiologist-theologians. However, "ordinary theology" covers a wide variety of other extremely important teachings of the Church, such as are found in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Ecclesiology appears nowhere in the Catechism.

Ecclesiology as a Sub-category of Other Catholic Theology: Ecclesiology is derived from the Greek word, "Ekklesia." For several centuries before Jesus Ekklesia was most commonly used to refer to a societal entity based upon citizenship in a city-state -- in other words, a political term. When used in the Bible, however, "Ekklesia" means "an assembly of God's people." Ekklesiaappears in only two verses of the gospels, and only in Matthew's Gospel: (1) In Mt. 16:18 (where Jesus tells Peter he will be the rock upon which Jesus will build his Church). (2) And in Mt. 18:17, where Jesus says that if a sinful brother refuses to be corrected by two or three witnesses they are to "tell the Church." But, Matthew adds, if the sinner refuses "to listen even to the Church," he is to be treated as "a Gentile or a tax collecter," i.e. excommunicated. In spite of the Gospels essentially ignoring the word Church, it is used many times in Acts of the Apostles. In St. Paul's letters, church is used most frequently in naming a particular local church that Paul founded or otherwise had a personal relationship with, such as in 1 Cor.2:1, where Paul addresses his letter "...to thechurch of God that is in Corinth."

When "Ekklesia" is used as the underlying source word for "ecclesiology," its broadest definition is simply the theological study of the Church. Thus ecclesiology deals with the study of the origins of Christianity, the relationship of Christianity to Jesus, Christianity's destiny, its discipline, and its leadership. It seeks to answer fundamental questions such as: Who is the Church? What is the relatonship between a believer and the Church? What is the authority of the Church? What does the Church do? How should the Church be governed? What are the roles of spiritual gifts in the life of the Church? What is the ultimate destiny of the Church in Christian eschatology? (i.e., in the "end times.")

Roman Catholic ecclesiology elucidates many patterns, or "models" and viewpoints of the Church. Cardinal Dulles tops the list of theologians describing these models of the Church. He does this in such a way that Catholics may look at themselves in relation to the Church and ask themselves if they have a healthy relationship within the Church, whether on the parish level or otherwise. To help Catholics review and evaluate their relationship within the Church, Dulles, in "Models of the Church," suggests that Catholics consider what they might do to strengthen their relationship with the Church. But before getting into a detailed study at this point of the actual models in "Models of the Church," let's turn to Cardinal Avery's amazing family background and his fascinating biography.

Dulles as "Everyman:" Cardinal Avery Dulles, S.J., was the first U.S. theologian to be named to the College of Cardinals. He was also the first American Jesuit to receive that honor. He was created a Cardinal in Rome in 2001 by his friend, Pope John Paul II, becoming the first American-born theologian, who was not a bishop, to become a Cardinal. (This had also been the case with the famous English Cardinal, John Henry Newman (1801-90), who, like Dulles, was an academic named to the College of Cardinals not as a bishop but as a brilliant intellectual). Dulles sat in on the meetings of Vatican II as a periti, or theological expert. Dulles noticed that each speaker used the word "church" to express different conceptions of the word. Dulles took notes and later published his observations using the phrase "models of the church." It was before and after these meetings that he met, talked with and befriended Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyła, the future Saint Pope John Paul II. As pope, John Paul II gave Cardinal Dulles his titular assignment in Rome. This assignment was as Cardinal-Deacon of the Roman church of the Most Holy Names of Jesus and Mary.

Dulles was the son of the U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, who served under President Eisenhower, and for whom Dulles International Airport in Washington, D.C. is named. Both his great-grandfather, John W. Foster, and his great uncle, Robert Lansing, likewise served as U.S. Secretaries of State. His uncle, Allen Dulles, was the Director of the CIA. While his parents’ religious background was Presbyterian, Dulles was raised in a generally secular household. He entered Harvard in 1936 as an agnostic. It was through the study of philosophy at Harvard that he began to explore the meaning of life. Aristotle taught him to have confidence in human reason. Plato led him to contemplate the nature of absolute being as the foundation for the moral order.

He had a sudden, powerfully decisive conversion experience, reminiscent of that of St. Augustine, although not while reading Scripture as happened with St.Augustine. On a rainy day Dulles noticed a tree beginning to flower along the Charles River near Harvard, and, as he was later to put it, he never again "doubted the existence of an all-good and omnipotent God." Reading the Gospels led Dulles to the loving and merciful God who redeemed us in Jesus Christ. He was also attracted to the active Catholic liturgical life with which he interacted in Cambridge, Massachusetts while a student at Harvard. He continued his studies and was led closer to the Catholic faith through the Gospels. Eventually Dulles asked a Jesuit priest to instruct him in the faith, and he was received into the Church in 1940. He later explained his conversion to Catholicism by writing, "The more I examined, the more I was impressed with the consistency and sublimity of Catholic doctrine."

He also greatly admired Thomistic philosophers (so named after "Thomas" Aquinas), Etienne Gilson and Jacques Maritain. Finally, Dulles entered the Jesuits in 1946 and began a life of studying and teaching theology, and was eventually ordained to the priesthood in 1956. He taught at the Jesuit House of Studies at Woodstock College, the Catholic University of America, and finally at Fordham University in New York. Cardinal Dulles' aim as a theologian was to present the historical tradition of the Catholic Church as it speaks to contemporary culture, and to point the way ahead for the life of the members of the Vatican II Church. He did this in 22 books and over 700 articles and reviews.

His book "Models of the Church" (1974), as revised and expanded in 2002, virtually "exploded" on Catholic theologians as both a complete ecclesiological summation of and prophecy for the life of the Church. However "Models of the Church" defined a renewed theology of the Church not just for formally trained theologians. The book spoke equally to Catholic laypersons, who found it easy reading and instructive on how they were to assert their new roles in a Vatican II Church as "priests, prophets and kings" (cf. 1 Pt. 2:5). Avery Dulles died in 2008 at the age of 90.

A Look Inside "Models of the Church:" Dulles broke down his vision of the Church into an outline of five Models of the Church, in approachable language and Scripturally based lessons that could be readily absorbed. One New Testament book that particularly exemplified Dulles' teaching in "Models of the Church" is the First Epistle of Peter. Peter's Epistle (and Dulles' Models) uplifts the laity from second-class citizenship in the Church to a level equal to the hierarchy in sanctity, though of course not equal to the hierarchy in the latters' unique calling to full-time ministry. As Peter wrote in his letter to the newly baptized laity:

"Once you were no people, but now you are God's people (1 Pt. 2:10)...[Like]living stones, let yourselves be built into a spiritual house to be a holy priesthood to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ." (2:5) [You] are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people of His own, so that you may announce the praises of Him who called you out of darkness into his wonderul light." (2:9)

"Models of the Church" had a lasting influence on how the Church is perceived. It remains a penetrating guide for exploring the nature of the Church and for speaking to average Catholic readers on their responsibility for participating in the Church as God's prescribed path to sanctity and salvation. Cardinal Dulles acknowledged that the foundation for the teaching of theology is a life of prayer. He wrote, "The theologian must participate in the prayer life of the Church and be a praying person himself or herself in order to think the thoughts of God, as we theologians try to do. A theologian who does not pray could hardly be a good theologian."

In his original 1974 edition of "Models of the Church," Dulles defined five basic models of the Church that had always prevailed in Catholic teaching, but were never as clearly described as in "Models of the Church."

His five Models from 1974 (and his later-added sixth from 2002):

(1) The Church as institution, that is, an earthly religious organization with a governing body, laws and moral principles that directs the lives of its members in accordance with God's plan for humanity. This institution is comprised of Catholics with specific roles and responsibilities, lay and clergy. Here the popes have a God-ordained universal jurisdiction over the whole Church on earth. The institutional Model emphasizes the visible structure of the Church. Complicating this picture is the reality that Christianity has fractured over the centuries into a variety of denominations that are institutionally separate from each other.

(2) The Church as mystical communion, that is, the "Mystical Body of Christ" (drawn from St. Paul's Epistles) as lived by the faithful. The mystical communion is a fellowship of people with shared beliefs.and through which the faithful participate in a life of prayer and holiness directed toward communion with God. In relationship to the "Mystical Body of Christ" the institutional Model takes a supporting role, formed to provide shape and support to the mystical communion. The institutional Model structures two types of social relationships upholding the mystical communion as a vital purpose of the Church: (1) a formally structured, visiblesociety and (2) an informal or interpersonal community. This mystical communion emphasizes the Church's role as an institution living as "The People of God" (from Vatican II) joined together in Christ.

(3) The Church as herald, whereby the Church is charged with proclaiming the Bible's message to the world, and reinforcing it among believers. Dulles states that many Catholics have a much better sense of Scripture than they imagine because of their lifelong fidelity to the Mass, where both Testaments are proclaimed publicly on a weekly and daily basis. The Chucrh as herald emphasizes that Catholics are called to take their liturgically taught view of the Bible in their workaday lives to others who may know nothing of the Bible, or who know nothing of the Catholic view of the Bible.

(4) The Church as sacrament. Here the Church emphasizes its role as mediator of grace through acts of worship and concern for one another as sisters and brothers in Christ through many elements of sanctification and truth. Further, as sacrament, the Church is an instrument bridging the gap between the earthly and the divine, a conduit for bringing divine grace to humanity. As sacramental, the Church must be a place to form meaningful relationships that open doors to others by sharing the holiness of the Church in the multitude of variant worldy callings in which lay Catholics engage.

(5) The Church as servant, that is, a missionary body sent to minister to the poor, sick, grieving, victimized members of society. Thus the Church exists wherever justice is done and love is made real, in aid and sacrifice for the sake of the least powerful ones. In this Model the Church is responsible for encouraging good works, and helping those in need.

Dulles' outline of the five Models is in clear, concise, non-technical prose that nearly anyone should grasp. Although he was a Catholic Cardinal, Dulles gives the perspectives of Protestant and Orthodox Christians a full and fair hearing. His book is definitely not a defense of an "official" Roman Catholic viewpoint. In fact he points out how Rome's "official" views became increasingly more fine-pointed, even in the years before Vatican II.

In his revised and updated 2002 edition of "Models of the Church," after explaining the five fundamental Models, Dulles added a sixth: The Church as Community of Disciples, in which he stressed the biblical parallel that exists between Jesus' earthly disciples and the modern disciples in the Church. As a modern Community of Disciples the members of the Church are urged to mold their Christian practice in the world along the lines of the seventy-two disciples that Jesus sent ahead of him to every town and place he intended to visit. (Lk.10:1-12).

Dulles' "Models of the Church" is one of the most logical and readable books about Catholic ecclesiology ever written. The Models are evaluated on their basis in Scripture, their link to Catholic traditional teaching, including Vatican II, and their descriptions of the pros and cons of each Model fairly and honestly. He also examines each Model in light of its ecumenical fitness. As for the ecumenical dimension, each of the Models is constructed so as to follow Jesus' "high priestly prayer" in John 17, where He prays to His Father "that they all may be one, as you Father, are in me and I in you." Jn 17:21. Catholics who want an honest look at a variety of valid means for imaging the Church would do well to read "Models of the Church"

"Models of the Church" offers keen insights to readers on how to deepen their relationship to the Church. It gives readers a particular starting point and then nudges readers into broadening their horizons. Each Model explains (1) what unifies the Church, (2) who the beneficiaries are, and (3) the nature of such benefits. It may be difficult for Catholics not to "rank" one of these Models as most in line with their own preferences. However, ranking is unnecessary as there actually is no correct order for the Models. Dulles' "Models" -- although that word was not used by the Fathers at Vatican II -- were nonetheless the broad categories Church leaders used when speaking of the Church at Vatican II. Dulles did not see his Models as rival definitions but as individual focuses within one definition of Church.

Dulles does not simply sketch out his Models and walk away from his readers. He issues challenges to readers not to be fixated on their "favorite" Model (the one that seems best suited to their personality and style of Church participation). He urges readers who say of a given Model, "That's for me," not to ignore and definitely not to inveigh against participation by fellow believers in other Models. He cautions against Catholics who may have previously criticized fellow Catholics who picked different models different from their own.

The Pro- and Con- Approach to and Use of the "Models:"

"Models of the Church" is a call to Catholics to be accepting of fellow believers who simply have a different style of being Catholic in accordance with an "unpopular" Model. For example, Catholics who see the institutional Model as the best way to be a Catholic will be tempted to criticize other Catholics who follow the servant Model -- or vice-versa. The former can go so far as to condemn followers of the servant model for being left-wing socialists, or even worse (as has actually occurred in places) -- as communists. St. Pope John Paul II, unmistakably not a communist, put the case for the servant Model emphatically: "Private property is under a social mortgage." (Solicitudo Rei Socialis [On Social Concern], 1987.) Whatever we have, he said, we have for the sake of others. What we withhold for ourselves has consequences for all.

And those who prefer the servant Model my rebuke those attracted to the institutional Model as "uninvolved" for making their parish priest the holder of all skills, talents and wisdom, and hence required to work all day and night on every single chore required to keep a parish going. Those who so rely on the institutional Model have a favorite saying when it comes to expressing their view of how to be a good practicing Catholic: "Let Father do it." They often act as if their priest knows as much about nuclear physics as Einstein did. And servant-Model adherents may say such things (as the writer herein actually once heard from a truck-driver for the St. Vincent de Paul society), "I hate the Catholic Church. I just follow the Lord."

There are two modern day Catholic exemplars of the followers of the substance of the Models of the Church, and of more than only one Model. We see in the lives of the following two persons how it is possible to combine dedication to two Models of the Church at the same time, both in saintly fashion, without putting everything they had within them into the one Model to which they had a stronger vocation and for which they had more personal suitability.

The first exemplar is Thomas Merton, O.C.S.O. (1915-1968), who was a Trappist monk at Our Lady of Gethsemani Abbey in Kentucky. His writings include such classics as The Seven Storey Mountain, New Seeds of Contemplation, and Zen and the Birds of Appetite. Merton was the author of more than seventy books that included poetry, personal journals, collections of letters, social criticism, and writings on peace, justice, and ecumenism. Merton was cut off from the outside world, essentially "hemmed in" by the exact strictures of the monastery's rules, regulations and minutely ordered specific times requiring the monks to be in a certain place absolutely on time. Yet, Merton was able through his writings to be a major and world-famous opponent of the war in Viet Nam. He was also well known and sought out as an ecumenical advocate on behalf of Catholicism to eastern religions. He died in Thailand, three years after Vatican II had begun, from an accidental electrical shock he suffered after giving an ecumenical talk to Buddhist monks on the interplay possible between Catholicism and Buddhism.

The second exemplar is Dorothy Day, Obl. O.S.B. (1897-1980). In the 1930s, Day worked closely with fellow activist Peter Maurin to establish the Catholic Worker Movement, a pacifist movement that continues to combine direct aid for the poor and homeless with non-violent service on their behalf. She served as editor of the Catholic Worker newspaper from 1933 until her death in 1980. When Vatican II began, she left her busy work on behalf of the poor and homeless and flew to Rome. There she rented an apartment as close as she could find to the meetings of the Fathers at Vatican II and prayed all day long, everyday, for the success of the Council. The Catholic Church has opened the cause for Day's canonization and therefore refers to her with the title Servant of God.

What do we see in the lives of these two Catholics? We see that they were capable of putting two Models of the Church into practice even though -- because of their personalities and vocational styles -- they preferred only one. But when the need called them to add dedication to a second Model of the Church, they gladly adapted the entire style of their lives to the second Model.

Merton was by personal preference and calling an adherent of the mystical communion Model. For his entire adult life until he entered Our Lady of Gethsemani Abbey in Kentucky -- as he wrote in his autobiography, The Seven Storey Mountain -- he had been intently searching for a life in Catholicism that would allow him to become a contemplative devotee of Christ based on deep experience of the interior life. Yet, when the war in Viet Nam broke out, and people from the outside world flocked to him and entreated him to write against the war, he took up his pen and argued that the war was against all that Catholicism stood for. He found himself leaving the mystical communion Model and entering fully onto the path of the servant model of the Church. He had to negotiate with publishers for his writings and travel to churches all over America and then abroad to speak to people on his views in opposition to the war. Then, he found himself sought out by followers of contemplation in eastern religions (many of them also monks) who asked him to share with them the place and practice of contemplative prayer in Catholicism. This required of him more travelling all over the world and speaking on Christian contemplative prayer to followers of other religions, including forming a close relationship with the Dalai Lama. His days of living in the silence of the monastery and practicing contemplative prayer were over.

Dorothy Day's personality and personal preference as a Catholic were the exact opposites of Merton's. She was totally dedicated to the servant Model, and worked hard and long hours putting the Catholic Worker newspaper together. It was a newspaper that successfully emphasized the need for Catholics in parishes and universities to give of their lives and themselves to the poor and homeless -- whom she felt strongly called to serve through spreading publication of the newspaper. Yet, when she read about Pope John XXIII's [the subsequent canonized saint's] convening of Vatican II as an ecumenical Council, she realized that the Council was potentially of more service to the poor and homeless than her newspaper. Hence, in her apartment in Rome, praying for the success of the Council, she had left behind her dedication to the servant Modeland taken up Merton's mystical communion Model.

Returning to the workings of the Models, let us consider more on what the institutional Model is all about -- hierarchical authority, a word that some Catholics highly respect and which makes them feel secure in belonging to the Church. However the word "institution" makes other Catholics feel that their freedom and individual style of adhering to doctrines of the Church is threatened by clerical "bigshots." The "institutional Church" refers to the organizing and governing body that decides what the orthodox or standard beliefs of the faithful should be. In general, anything that has to do with structure, discipline, law, government, identity and definition represents the institutional Model of the Church. Even a short-lived organization develops an institution to support its existence. How much more, then, has the Church needed its structure to survive over the centuries.

The bad news about institutions, of course, is that they tend to collect baggage as they journey through the years. Institutions by nature resist change, promote passivity among unempowered members, and attract power-mongers to their hierarchies. Clericalism, the "priest-first" mentality that some clergy and some members of the laity often unwittingly support, stifles prophetic voices that challenge the status quo. Consider your reaction to the term "the establishment" and you know how you stand in relationship to the institutional Model. Some of us naturally embrace institutions, while others tolerate them only reluctantly.

The "warning sign" of some believers' view of the institutional Model of the Church has tended to be "There is no salvation outside of the Church." It was as if the institution were synonymous with the Kingdom of God. Narrowly understood, this is not a teaching of the Catholic Church.

The mystical communion Model of the Church at times in the past has tended to be the opposite of the institutional Model of the Church. If the hierarchy was running largely on the institutional Model of the Church, the laity was equally attached to the "otherworldly" aspects of the Church: Mass in Latin, priests set apart from the laity by vows, holy rituals, popular devotions to the mysteries of Mary's life, the sufferings of Jesus or the miracles of the saints. The veil of incense hung like a curtain over this world. But what was inside this world was a real sense of union with the Divine that the Church after Vatican II, for many, has failed to recapture.

The downside of an emphasis on mystery is that it can lead to an otherworldly approach to our life of faith. Is Catholicism merely a system for the personal perfection of its members? Is it only about fostering a "God-and-me" relationship, or is there a responsibility to the world beyond the sanctuary. The mystical communion Model of the Church, left unchecked, can lead to a split in a person's perception of the world: some things holy and sacred, most things secular and profane. But the world is not bad, nor is the life of the spirit simply good in an undifferentiated way.

The upside of the herald Model of the Church is that it provides a reason and method for outreach to the world. It does not keep the gift of faith to itself, as the mystical communion Model might be tempted to do. The Church as herald fulfills Jesus' command to take the gospel "on the road." It is a teacher, a guide, a lighthouse to those who are lost in the night. The herald Model of Church is quite fearless. But the herald Model also can be simply preachy. The herald Model can tell everyone what to do, but does nothing itself to actually change the world for the better. The herald who substitutes words for action is fooling no one. It tends to make hearers of the herald want to say, "Practice what you preach."

The sacrament Model of the Church places its emphasis on the assembly, just as the herald Model highlights Scripture. The community itself becomes a source of revelation. The sacramental Model works best if you enjoy people, make friends easily, and like to share. But it will be a hindrance to authentic spirituality if you are shy, private, prefer sacred space to be silent and would rather be alone with God. The sacramental Model is valuable because it makes the necessary shift from "I" to "We" in the religious enterprise. Alas, the problem with any utopian community is the same: What about when it springs a leak? Since, unlike the institutional Model, most authority resides within the community itself in the sacramental Model of Church. The sacramental Model can have conflicting discernments about where this ship ought to be sailing.

If you're attracted to the servant Model of the Church, you may think,"Who cares about worship style?" The gospel challenges us to do what Jesus did, and the Church is primarily concerned about how we serve others. There may be an underlying attitude with servant Church members that, when aired, sounds like, "Don't talk to me about Church. I'm too busy saving the world." A person devoted to the servant Church Model is a creature both admirable and fierce. But servants who lose perspective will begin to forget that the Lord is in those they serve and begin to mistake themselves for the Messiah. When you begin to think that the salvation of the world depends on you, you know you've gone too far.

The herald and servant Models, naturally are in tension, just as the emphasis on ritual of both the mystical communion Model and the sacrament Model is lost on servant Model adherents. And the servant Model frequently butts heads with the institutional Church as well. You might call the the servant Model the "maverick" of the bunch. The good news about the servant Model is obvious. Certainly Christians must do as Christ did: "Just as you did it to one of the least of these who are members of my family, you did it to me." (Mt. 25:40) However, Church-as-servant believers may neglect prayer, Scripture and the Church community in favor of their work: "My work is my prayer; the people I serve are my gospel."

The Marks of the Church: No matter where you find yourself within Cardinal Dulles' Models of the Church, and you should try to find where that is, you know you are a faithful Catholic if you adhere to four basic elements or marks of the Church. They are found in the Nicene Creed: "We believe in one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church."

As the Catechism defines oneness in the Church, "The Church is one because of her source. The highest exemplar and source of this mystery is the unity, in the Trinity of Persons, of one God, the Father and the Son in the Holy Spirit." (n. 813) The Church isholy because grace -- God in action -- operates through the Church and the love of Jesus is manifest within it.

The Church is catholic or universal, meaning that the same fullness of Christ, the same Spirit and gifts are present in all Church communities throughout the world. St. Paul encouraged all churches to live in "harmony" with one another, "that with one accord you may with one voice glorify the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ." (Rom. 15:5-6). The catholicity of the Church is found in pondering the ultimate mission of the Church: to bring it about that God's name be glorified throughout the world and that Jesus Christ be universally recognized as God's gift to all humanity. (cf. Rom. 15:7-13)

The Church also believes its authority is based on apostolic succession, the idea that the authority of the Church comes from Jesus' commission to the Apostles. That authority was passed from leader to leader, from generation to generation, through laying on of hands, a gesture of conferring leadership performed during ordinations.

We Are the Church: To conclude this article, let us consider how a central definition of Church remains, namely, in St. Paul's metaphor of the Body of Christ. There is no Church "out there" apart from you and me and many others like us who together comprise the Body of Christ. Like the story of the Israelites in the Old Testament and the story of the disciples around Jesus, the story of the Church is now our story. If we are passive in our membership or absent altogether, then the whole Church suffers -- much as one failing organ makes the whole body malfunction. No part of the body is without its place, its value and its dignity. Our part in the Church is beyond price. In both an ecclesiological sense and a practical day-to-day sense, Cardinal Dulles' Models of the Church give us the sense of the fullness that the Church gives us in our walk with the Lord. We are His Church. We are our Church. The Church is not an "it;" it is an "Us." We are the Church. 

--Tony Gilles

This theological reflection courtesy of the parishioners of St Paul Catholic Church in Pensacola, Florida: stpaulcatholic.net